a.c. stands for “ante cibum” (which is Latin for “before food”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. Levothyroxine, 50mcg, a.c.”.

A person is staring into space, unaware of what's going on. Absences are a type of generalised onset seizure, meaning both sides of a person's brain are affected from the beginning of the seizure. The 2 most common types of absence seizure are typical and atypical. These used to be called petit-mal seizures.

An Action Potential is a rapid change in the current of electricity in a neuron. It happens when a neuron sends information away from its Soma/Cell body and down its Axon. It's like a spike of electrical activity created by a depolarising current of electricity and is sometimes referred to as a spike or an impulse.

Drug adherence or compliance describes the degree to which a person correctly follows medical advice. Most commonly, it refers to medication or drug compliance, but it can also apply to other situations such as medical device use, self-care, self-directed exercises, or therapy sessions.

If someone has a life-threatening illness for which they need immediate care they should be Admitted to hospital as an inpatient. For instance, if a person had a heart attack they would likely be admitted to hospital. Often, if a person goes into status-epilepticus, they are admitted to hospital so that hospital staff can stop the seizure(s).

The study of the cause of a condition or disease. E.g. the aetiology of an epilepsy could be a genetic mutation, a brain tumour, or a stroke.

An allele is a gene in a different form. Some genes have a variety of different forms, which are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome.

AHC is a rare epilepsy affects 1 in a million people and affects any and every neurological symptom. Many symptoms include seizures (both epileptic and non), status epilepticus, dystonia, hemiplegic attacks, and many more. AHC is caused by specific groups of mutations in the ATP1A3 gene.

Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia; the name for a group of symptoms associated with an ongoing decline of brain functioning. It can affect memory, thinking skills and other mental abilities. The exact cause of Alzheimer's disease is not yet fully understood, although a number of things are thought to increase your risk of developing the condition.

Is an EEG where electrodes are adhered to the scalp in the hospital but where readings are taken whilst at home. They can be for 24 hours or even last a few days.

Is a part of your brain deep within each of your temporal lobes and is the shape of an almond! It's thought to play an important role in emotion and behaviour.

This term refers to a description of how and where a person's seizures spread in their brain physically and in terms of electrical activity so that doctors can then hypothesise where the seizures start and link it all up with the symptoms (e.g. types of seizure(s)).

Angelman syndrome is a is a rare epilepsy genetic epilepsy. It causes severe delayed developmental delay, learning disabilities, absence or near absence of speech, challenges with physical balance, inability to coordinate voluntary movements, and sometimes, seizures (hence it is a rare epilepsy). People with Angelman Syndrome often smile and laugh frequently, and have happy, excitable personalities.

Before birth (also known as pre-natal).

Now known as Anti-Seizure Medications: the medications taken to reduce the severity and frequency of epileptic seizures.

Medications taken to reduce the severity and frequency of epileptic seizures.

Anxiety is a feeling of unease, such as worry or fear. It can be mild or severe.

Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) is any injury to the brain that happens after birth that is not congenital or genetic. Causes of ABI include stroke, physical blows to the head, oxygen deprivation, alcohol or drugs, Alzheimer’s Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, and Parkinson’s Disease. Epilepsy is closely linked to ABI.

Artificial Intelligence refers to a machine/computer's capability to calculate and make decisions, rather than the ability of living creatures like homo sapiens or fish.

Ataxia is a term for a group of disorders that affect co-ordination, balance and speech.

Atonic seizures can be of generalised onset, meaning they affect both sides of the brain from the start, or they can be focal onset, meaning they start on just one side of the brain. In an atonic seizure a person's muscles go limp and they drop to the floor. These used to be called drop attacks.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurological condition where symptoms include struggling to concentrate, being restless, being hyperactive, and being impulsive. People often struggle with time management, prioritising, and some people get frustrated more easily than most people.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a spectrum condition related to brain development that impacts how a person perceives and socialises with others, causing challenges in social interaction and communication. The term "spectrum" in autism spectrum disorder refers to the wide range of symptoms and severity. ASD begins in early childhood and is more commonly found in people with epilepsy (and vice versa). Some people with ASM can be declared as "high-functioning" and others as "low-functioning".

An autoimmune disease is a condition in which your immune system mistakenly attacks your body. There are autoimmune epilepsies.

Part of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulates/controls our involuntary physiological processes such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiration (breathing), digestion, and sexual arousal which happen below our level of consciousness!

An axon is a long, slender piece of each of your neurons.

Part of the Axon and right next to and connected to the Soma is the Axon Hillock. It controls the firing/release of the signal to the rest of the neuron. So, if the signal is strong enough, it'll allow the message to travel further down the Axon.

Aphasia is a language disorder that causes the full loss of language in a person.

Dysphasia is a term used for partial loss of language.

The word aphasia is now commonly used to describe both conditions.

b.d. stands for “bis in die” (which is Latin for “twice a day”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Lacosamide, 150mg, b.d.”.

Bacteria are single-celled living organisms and can live either inside/on a body or outside of it. Bacteria are WAY larger than any virus! Most bacteria (a type of germ) are harmless to humans and can be very beneficial but some bacterial infections are to be avoided/prevented. Examples include Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs), skin infections, respiratory infections (e.g. mild chest infections), pneumonia, bacterial meningitis, and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) (e.g. chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and bacterial vaginosis).

Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures (BFNS) is a rare epilepsy characterised by recurrent seizures in new-born babies. The seizures begin around day 3 of life and usually go away within 1 to 4 months. The seizures can involve only one side of the brain (focal seizures) or both sides (generalised seizures). Many infants with this condition have generalised tonic-clonic seizures (formally known as grand mal seizures). This type of seizure involves both sides of the brain and affects the entire body, causing muscle rigidity, convulsions, and loss of consciousness.

Something is bidirectional it functions both ways. E.g. people can be learning from each other - that’s bidirectional learning. Or, for instance, anxiety and seizures can have a bidirectional relationship because anxiety can lead to seizures in some people and seizures can lead to anxiety in some people.

Bacteria are single-celled living organisms and can live either inside/on a body or outside of it. Bateria is WAY larger than any virus! Most bacteria (a type of germ) are harmless to humans and can be very beneficial but there are some bacterial infections that are to be avoided/prevented. Examples include UTIs (urinary tract infections), skin infections, respiratory infections (e.g. mild chest infections), pneumonia, bacterial meningitis, STIs (sexually transmitted infections) (e.g. chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and bacterial vaginosis).

Benign Familial Neonatal Seizures (BFNS) is a rare epilepsy characterised by recurrent seizures in newborn babies. The seizures begin around day 3 of life and usually go away within 1 to 4 months. The seizures can involve only one side of the brain (focal seizures) or both sides (generalised seizures). Many infants with this condition have generalised tonic-clonic seizures (formally known as grand mal seizures). This type of seizure involves both sides of the brain and affects the entire body, causing muscle rigidity, convulsions, and loss of consciousness.

Something is bidirectional it functions both ways. E.g. people can be learning from each other - that’s bidirectional learning. Or, for instance, anxiety and seizures can have a bidirectional relationship because anxiety can lead to seizures in some people, and seizures can lead to anxiety in some people.

Bifidobacteria are a group of healthy bacteria called probiotics. They are among the first microbes to ever colonise the human gastrointestinal tract (in terms of evolution). They help the human body (their host) perform essential functions such as digestion, producing vitamins, and staving off certain diseases.

When there's a biological molecule in a bodily fluid that enables us to identify a condition or disease, we call it a biomarker.

Acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.

b.u.c.c. stands for "bucca" (which is Latin for "the mouth") describing how to administer a medication. E.g. “midazlolam, 2.5mg, b.u.c.c.”.

The buddy system is a procedure in which two individuals, the "buddies", operate together as a single unit so that they are able to monitor and help each other.

CACNA1A genetic variants are associated with multiple neurological disorders including epilepsies. Individuals exhibit a variety of symptoms that fall on a spectrum from mild to severe. People can have a wide range of symptoms or features, including mild-severe epilepsies, encephalopathy, ID, ASD, Hypotonia, ataxia, migraine, cerebella atrophy, and eye disorder.

Calories are units of energy used to measure the energy within an item of food or drink.

Carbohydrates are forms of sugar biomolecules and are one of the main nutrients found in food and drinks. Digestive systems break carbohydrates into glucose for absorption of energy.

The relationship between cause and effect.

Causation is a term used in statistics and research where a legitimate cause-and-effect is identifiable, i.e., an occurrence of one variable leads to the occurrence of another.

CDKL5 is a rare genetic epilepsy with the epileptic seizures usually beginning in the first 8 months of a child's life. Common seizures include infantile spasms and myoclonic jerks. Most cannot walk, talk, or feed themselves, and many are confined to wheelchairs, dependent on others for everything. Many also have scoliosis, visual impairment, sensory issues, and various gastrointestinal difficulties. About 90 percent of those diagnosed with CDKL5 deficiency disorder are girls.

A cell membrane is like the protective skin of a cell. It's a semi-permeable barrier between what the cell contains and the outside. The membrane keeps some things away but allows some things to enter. It's also known as a plasma membrane.

Our Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of our brain and spinal cord - hence is a key part of epilepsy! The CNS is separate from but linked to our Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

The cerebellum is a part of your brain that plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language as well as emotional control such as regulating fear and pleasure.

The right and left hemispheres of your brain are connected by your corpus callosum.

Is a group of disorders that affect a person's ability to move and maintain balance, coordination, and posture. A permanent neurological condition and the most common motor disability in childhood; levels of severity vary greatly. CP is associated with a higher incidence of seizure disorders.

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of the right and left hemispheres. It has 70 BILLION neurons! It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision, and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement.

Ion channels are found in every cell of the body and when they don't work properly, a variety of diseases can be caused: these are called Channelopathies. Channelopathies can be congenital (hereditary) or not. Sometimes channelopathies can cause an epilepsy.

Chromosomes are long, thread-like molecular structures inside the middle (the nucleus) of animal and plant cells and are made up of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)! They come in pairs and normally, each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes). Half come from the mother; the other half come from the father and collated form all of the genetic material of the organism.

Circadian rhythms are changes in the body (physical, mental, neurological, behavioural) that follow a 24-hour cycle. The circadian rhythm is like a body's "internal clock".

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and gas), which produces heat-trapping gases. Climate change is having and shall continue to have a dangerous impact on many people around the world with epilepsy and shall lead to more epilepsy cases.

Clinical research is medical research that involves people. There are observational studies and clinical trials.

Clinical trials are when a treatment is tried out/tested on patients. To get to this stage, extensive pre-clinical studies must have taken place - often taking 10-15 years.

The term clinical refers to the work of people who work with patients, for example: a neurologist or dietician seeing patients is a clinician whereas a person solely researching epilepsy or gastro disease in the lab is not.

The Coding Sequence is the part of a gene or mRNA that codes for protein.

Cognition is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Sometimes a person can start to lose some of their previously held or acquired cognitive abilities - meaning that they have regressed cognitively. An example could be if a person experiences some neurological damage that negatively impacts their ability to understand certain things. Some epilepsies (particularly some severe refractory epilepsies commencing in infancy) can cause cognitive regression.

A cohort is a group of people referred to in research and statistics who have a similar characteristic.

Comorbidities refer to medical conditions/diseases that accompany one another.

A concussion is a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) caused by a jolt/bump to the head that makes the brain inside the head and bash the skull. There are 3 types of concussion: Grade 1 (mild), Grade 2 (moderate), and Grade 3 (severe). Common signs: headaches, loss of consciousness, nausea/vomiting, irritability, dizziness, amnesia, and more.

A medical condition that is present from birth.

An organism’s state of being aware of and responsive to their surroundings.

In medicine, a contraindication is a specific situation in which a person can't receive a certain treatment because of the specific risk that it would bring to them. Sometimes the risk is considered "low", sometimes it’s considered "medium", and sometimes it’s considered "high". Often medications can interact with each other causing contraindications or people can have an allergy causing a contraindication.

CdLS is a rare genetic disease where approx. 20% of people have an epilepsy – the most common seizure type being focal. CdLS is caused by mutations in three known different genes: NIBPL (crom 5p), SMC1A (crom X), and SMC3 (crom 10q), which account for about 65% of cases. The syndrome is characterised by distinctive facial features, psychomotor delay, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), hand and feet abnormalities, and involvement of other organs/systems.

This is a selection of nerve fibres inbetween your brain hemispheres that transmit messages from one side of your brain to the other.

Correlation is a term used in statistics and research where there is an association between the occurrence of one thing and another. It doesn’t mean that one thing causes another though (this is causation).

The cortex is the surface of your cerebrum that looks like it's folded and makes your brain look bumpy. It has 16 BILLION neurons!

If something is cranial it's about the cranium (otherwise known as the skull)

Craniofacial is a term used when referring to something affecting a person's face or cranium (skull).

The cranium is the medical term for “skull”.

A cross-sectional study is a type research and observational study that compares different population groups at a single point in time.

The data or information held about a person in healthcare plays a crucial part in their quality of care. High-quality data will be accurate, complete (have all the information required), reliable (no errors), relevant to the person (e.g. not have lots of information about their eye colour when there are no concerns about their eyes and have missing information about things relating to their epilepsy), and be provided/available in a timely manner. Data quality allows healthcare organisations to speed up existing processes and build insights that allow for smarter patient and policy decisions.

De novo mutations are gene mutations that can be either hereditary or somatic. In some cases, the mutation occurs in a person's egg or sperm cell but is not present in any of the person's other cells. In other cases, the mutation occurs in the fertilised egg shortly after the egg and sperm cells unite (It is often impossible to tell exactly when a de novo mutation happened).

Déjà vu is that feeling you have when you feel like you've already experienced what you're experiencing now. Lots of people without epilepsy experience it but the feeling of déjà vu can be part of a focal seizure! In French the term means "already seen".

Dementia is a common, progressive neurological disease where a person experiences damage to or the loss of nerve cells and their connections in the brain which causes a decrease in their cognitive function. Common symptoms include memory loss, and difficulties with thinking, problem-solving, or language. There are lots of different types of dementia but the most common are Alzheimer’s disease (about 60-70% of dementia cases), Lewy body dementia, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia. Other types of dementia include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Wernicke-Korsakoff’s dementia, dementias related to Parkinson’s disease or Huntington’s disease, and then people can even have a mix of more than one type. In more than 99% of cases, dementia is not hereditary.

A developmental anomaly is a broad term used to define medical conditions that are present at conception or occur before the end of pregnancy. In the case of cerebral palsy, a small number also occur after birth. An anomaly is considered a departure from normal development.

Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies (DEEs) are a heterogeneous group of rare and ultra-rare epilepsy syndromes that manifest with seizures, behavioural disturbances, or EEG abnormalities that can directly worsen cognition and behaviour. These disorders are often progressive and are highly resistant to treatment. These syndromes involve Impaired development (developmental encephalopathies) and Regression of developmental progress (epileptic encephalopathies).

A diagnosis is the identification of the nature of an illness by checking out/examining a person's symptoms. "Diagnoses" is the plural - so a person may have several diagnoses.

To diagnose a person with a condition/disease, there are certain signs/symptoms/test results that need to be present. This is called Diagnostic criteria.

Diagnostic delay is the time between when a person's symptoms start and when they get a confirmed diagnosis is called the diagnostic delay. For example, someone might have their first epileptic seizure, but because it's a one-off they are not diagnosed with epilepsy. 2 weeks later they might have 2 more seizures and could be diagnosed with epilepsy. The diagnostic delay in this case would be 2 weeks.

Digital health is when we use information and communication tech in healthcare. If designed, implemented, and managed well, digital health can help us manage our illnesses/diseases/conditions, minimise our health risks, and improve overall wellness and quality of life. Examples include online appointments, records, using mobile phones for recording data, setting up reminders, and such.

When a person has recovered from an inpatient stay in the hospital, they shall be discharged by hospital staff and able to go home.

A person's distal phalanges are the bones at the tips of their fingers and toes!

DLG4-related Synaptopathy/SHINE syndrome is a rare epilepsy that is caused by variants in the DLG4 gene - which can also lead to other clinical manifestations such as Global Developmental Delay (GDD), Intellectual Disability, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and hypotonia. Many individuals with SHINE syndrome also present with sleep disturbances, skeletal (bone) abnormalities, and/or structural brain abnormalities. As the clinical manifestations associated with DLG4 overlap with those found in other neurodevelopmental disorders of synaptic dysfunction; this group of disorders has been named DLG4-related synaptopathy. It is also known as SHINE Syndrome.

DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid and is a molecule similar to RNA but more complex. DNA has two strands of genetic information that wind around one another to form a double helix and carry genetic instructions. They are present in all living things.

Doose Syndrome/Myoclonic Astatic Epilepsy (MAE) is a rare epilepsy syndrome of early childhood, most commonly appearing between ages 1 and 5 and featuring generalised seizures. Children will experience drop attacks and staring seizures, sometimes associated with falls.

Dravet Syndrome is a rare, lifelong form of epilepsy that begins in the first year of life with frequent and/or prolonged seizures. Previously known as Severe Myoclonic Epilepsy of Infancy (SMEI) 80% of people with Dravet Syndrome have a mutation in their SCN1A gene.

When a person has a level of dependency upon a drug; if they stop it or reduce the dosage of the drug they may experience withdrawal symptoms. Examples vary greatly on the drug itself, any other drugs being taken, the person themselves, and more.

More than half of people with the rare genetic disease called Dup15q Syndrome have recurrent epileptic seizures. The seizures usually develop between the ages of 6 months and 9 years. Infantile spasms in Dup15q often progress to Lennox Gastaut syndrome and other complex seizure patterns that may be difficult to control.

The term "dysmorphisms" refers to any abnormalities in a person's body structure.

Dysphasia is a language disorder that affects a person's ability to speak and understand language. It can occur during epileptic seizures but also can be caused by stroke, infections, head injuries, and tumours. Aphasia is the medical term for full loss of language.

The word aphasia is now commonly used to describe both conditions.

Dystonia is a very complex and highly variable neurological disorder that causes a range of movements that include involuntary muscle spams and contractions. These movements are often repetitive and cause unusual, awkward, and sometimes painful postures. It originates from the abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia (a deep part of the brain). It is often associated with an epilepsy.

Early Onset Epilepsy are epilepsies that start within the first 12 months of life.

Efficacy is a word often used in medicine to describe how effective something is. For example, the efficacy of a condom is 98% if used correctly.

Also known as an EKG (due to German spelling) an ECG records the electrical signal from your heart to check for different heart conditions. It's very different from an EEG.

An electrocorticography is a type of intracranial EEG where a person has surgery to have a piece of their skull removed (temporarily!) and have electrodes placed directly onto their brain. ECoGs provide more detail about a person’s brain activity than a regular EEG as there isn't a skull or extra tissue in the way of the electrodes! ECoG's can be essential for doctors to identify the exact part of a person's brain responsible for their seizures and can play a valuable tool in improving a patient's treatment plan.

An EEG Is a test used to evaluate the electrical activity in the brain. Electrodes are placed on top of the scalp in specific places to measure the brain's activity.

From conception until the eighth week of pregnancy, a group of cells form an embryo, after which it is named a foetus. After birth, the young is referred to as a baby.

Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain, usually caused by an infection. People who have had encephalitis are about 16 times more likely to develop epilepsy than the general population. Encephalitis is different to encephalopathy.

"Encephalopathy" refers to damage or disease that affects the brain. It happens when there's been a change in the way your brain works or a change in your body that affects your brain. Those changes lead to an altered mental state, leaving someone confused and not acting like they usually do. Encephalopathy is different to encephalitis.

Part of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), our Enteric Nervous System (ENS) receives internal input from our gastrointestinal tract and external input from our brain and other parts of our ANS to regulate our digestion.

Epidemiology is the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people and why.

An Epilepsy Consultant Nurse is senior to that of an Epilepsy Specialist Nurse and can play more of a role in research and academia. They have greater responsibilities and authority.

An Epilepsy Monitoring Unit is part of a hospital where people with epilepsy have video telemetry.

Epilepsy Specialist Nurses (ESNs) play a key role in supporting the continuity of care between settings for people with epilepsy. They can work in a variety of areas for adults and children - for example, in acute care, neurology services, community services, neurosurgery, intellectual disability, and learning disability services. They often aim to assist patients with all aspects of living with epilepsy. Some ESNs can prescribe medications and refer patients for other treatments. They work with neurologists and other clinicians to help provide patients with the best care possible.

Epilepsy Syndromes are the "Highest level of classification of the epilepsies" - Sameer Zuberi.
These epilepsies are defined by a cluster of features that occur together including (but not limited to) genetic information, type/types of seizures, age of onset, causes, patterns of seizures, brain imaging findings, and more.

Epileptiform activity refers to brain discharges/activity that show epileptic activity.

Epileptogenesis is the start of an epilepsy. It's that moment/stage where the functions of a "healthy" brain alter to incur abnormal electrical activity and cause reoccurring seizures - in addition (often) to many other symptoms such as mental health issues, cognitive challenges, movement disorders, and more.

The Epileptogenic Zone is a lesion of the brain identified through radiography as the cause of a person’s epileptic seizures. It is different from the Seizure Onset Zone which is the part of the brain in which a person’s seizures start.

An Epileptologist is a neurologist who has done extra studying to specialise in helping people affected by the epilepsies. An Epileptologist has acquired expertise in seizures and seizure disorders, anti-seizure medications, mental health issues, behavioural disorders, movement disorders, and advanced treatment options such as epilepsy surgery.

A person’s ethnicity is based upon how they culturally identify themselves. Attributes for ethnicity often include/are based on shared ancestry, language, and cultural traditions. Ethnicity is different from race.

The EMA is an EU organisation responsible for the evaluation and supervision of medicinal products, their marketing, safety, and such.

Neurons contain neurotransmitters that have degrees of excitation ("yeah, let's fire!") vs inhibition ("no, let's not fire!"). The neurotransmitters control whether or not an Action Potential (an electrical impulse) will occur.

Faeces/Feces/Poo/Poop are solid (largely) waste products excreted from the body (exiting the rectum and anus) after processing through the digestive system.

A US term: providing the drugs of a prescription.

Focal Cortical Dysplasia is a term used to describe a focal (local) area of the brain containing neurons that are abnormal in their organisation and development. These neurons can often play a part in an epilepsy.

Focal refers to a specific area, so a focal epilepsy is one that originates from a specific part of the brain. Examples include temporal lobe epilepsy, frontal lobe epilepsy, and parietal lobe epilepsy. Do note that the seizures experienced by someone with a focal epilepsy needn't remain solely focal and can often spread to become generalised seizures and are referred to as a Focal to Bilateral Tonic-Clonic Seizure.

Foetal Anti-Convulsant Syndrome is a group of various congenital (born with) malformations caused by an embryo/foetus' exposure to Anti-Seizure Medications. Examples of the malformations include cardiac and neural tube "defects", oral-facial clefts, and hypospadias. Other malformations can include craniofacial dysmorphisms such as hypertelorism, flat nasal ridge, low-set ears, microcephaly, and short neck, and digital anomalies such as hypoplasia of the distal phalanges or nails, plus cognitive, intellectual, and behavioural disturbances.

From conception until the eighth week of pregnancy, a group of cells form an embryo, after which it is named a foetus. After birth, the young is referred to as a baby.

The Food & Drug Administration is a USA organisation responsible for protecting public health when it comes to drugs, food, medical devices, cosmetics, and more.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a genetic disease where symptoms can include intellectual disability, developmental delay, anxiety, mental health issues, behavioural and learning challenges, ADD, ADHD, ASD, hand-biting, poor eye contact, sensory disorders, and increased risk of aggressive behaviour. More than 20% of people with FXS and autism have seizures, compared with about 8% of those with FXS alone. There are multiple physical features including large ears, long face, soft skin, and large testicles in males.

The Frontal lobe is s a part of your cerebrum and you have one on each side (hemisphere) of your brain. Your frontal lobe is (shockingly!) at the front of your brain.

The fMRI Is a type of brain scan that looks at the function and structure of the brain. The scanner is a short cylinder that’s open at both ends, containing a motorised bed. The patient lies on the bed and is given earplugs as the device is very noisy.

Gain/loss of function refers to when a person either is able to start using a part of their body again or more, or when it's the opposite and they can't use a part of their body as well as they used to or at all. This can happen with some epilepsies.

The Gastrointestinal tract is a group of hollow organs all joined together and involved in the transportation, digestion, absorption, and expulsion of food and drink. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The activity of the intestines can be linked to some epilepsies.

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA and each chromosome contains many genes.

For more detail check out this page.

A Gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. A gene alteration will lead to the gene sequence differing from that held in most people. Mutations range in size; they can affect anything from a single DNA building block (base pair) to a large segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes. A gene mutation can be inherited or acquired (or somatic).

Gene panels are collections of genes that have been grouped for testing, enabling simultaneous sequencing of all the genes known to cause a particular disease, syndrome, or phenotype. They can be very important when it comes to genetic testing for the epilepsies because there are hundreds of identified variants and the symptoms of the variants can be very similar.

Gene therapy is when a person's gene is changed to stop/treat a genetic disease. Lots of research is taking place regarding gene therapy for the epilepsies!

If something is genetic it relates to the gene(s) of a living organism - for instance, a human!

When people are having genetic testing, they can also be referred to or ask for Genetic counselling. Genetic counsellors can help people think through what the test and results can mean for them, their families, and even any potential future children.

Genetic variants are differences in a person’s genes that make them genetically different from other people. Sometimes the variants are inherited from their parents (hereditary) and sometimes they are "de novo" - meaning that they are only in the child and that the gene changed after the sperm fertilised the egg! With more and more research, more epilepsies are being identified as being down to genetic variants. However, only a small percentage of genetic variants cause any medical issues. Genetic variants play a key part in evolution.

Genetics is the scientific study of genes and how certain qualities or traits are passed from parents to offspring as a result of changes in DNA sequence. A gene is a segment of DNA that contains instructions for building one or more molecules that help the body work (or not work).

The term "genotype" refers to the genetic makeup of an organism - which can be a person, animal, plant, bacteria, or virus. It describes the organism's complete set of genes. Compared to this, a "phenotype" refers to the observable characteristics of an organism.

Gliomas are a growth of malignant (cancerous) brain cells forming tumours. They differ in levels of severity. They start in the brain or spinal cord and often cause epilepsy.

In people with the rare epilepsy GLUT1 Deficiency Syndrome, their glucose is not adequately transported from their bloodstream into their brain cells. Because glucose is the primary source of energy for the brain GLUT1 can cause seizures, developmental delay, movement disorders, and more. The ketogenic diet is often a form of treatment for this epilepsy.

Data granularity is a measure of the level of detail in a data structure. E.g. If data has a high level of granularity it has heaps of different pieces of information but if data has a low level of granularity then it doesn’t have many pieces of information.

Graphene is a 1-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms arranged in a 2D hexagonal lattice nanostructure. The pattern created looks just like honeycomb!

The Gut–Microbiota–Brain Axis refers to the network of connections involving multiple biological systems that allow bidirectional communication between gut bacteria and the brain. It is crucial in maintaining homeostasis of the Gastrointestinal, Central Nervous, and Microbial systems of animals - including homo sapiens!

Hereditary mutations are genetic mutations that have been inherited from a parent.

Heterogenous means "mixed" or "diverse" e.g. there could be an ethnically heterogeneous population in a city. It is the opposite of "Homogeneous" which refers to things that are the same or similar.

High-Density EEGs are very similar to regular EEGs but instead, they involve the use of far more electrodes. In a regular EEG, there might be 26-28 electrodes used whereas with a High-Density EEG: 128 or even 256 electrodes can be used!

The hippocampus is a small part of your brain shaped like a seahorse (“hippocampus means "seahorse" in Greek!). It is located deep within each of your temporal lobes. It is an important part of the limbic system, a cortical region that regulates motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. Hippocampal sclerosis is a common cause of temporal lobe epilepsy.

In the world of neurology, “Home monitoring” refers to having an EEG outside of the hospital. It’s also known as Remote monitoring, At-home monitoring, and an Ambulatory EEG. Electrodes are adhered to the scalp in a hospital, but the monitoring happens when the person is at home. These sessions can last 24 hours or even a few days. Sometimes a video will simultaneously record the activity of the person, and this can be called at-home video telemetry or ambulatory video telemetry.

Homeostasis is like a state of calm in our bodies; it’s a self-regulating process that enables us to gain stability whilst adjusting to conditions that are changing outside of our control. It's crucial for our survival! A good example is the work between the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)!

Homogeneous refers to things that are the same or similar. It is the opposite to "Heterogenous" which means "mixed" or "diverse" e.g. there could be an ethnically heterogenous population in a city.

Hyperarousal is a common symptom of Anxiety or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and is when a person feels on edge, irritable, may have angry outbursts, sleeping problems, and difficulty concentrating.

Hypoplasia refers to a part(s) of someone’s body and/or brain that’s underdeveloped. It could be hypoplasia of the tooth, a bone in your foot, or part of your brain, hence symptoms differ from person to person. Examples of brain hypoplasia symptoms can include seizures, abnormal eye movements, headaches, hearing impairments, intellectual disability, and more.

The opposite of hypoplasia is Hyperplasia which refers to part(s) of a person’s body and/or brain that has an increase in the production of their tissue.

Hyperplasia refers to tissue that is overdeveloped - i.e. there is an overproduction of cells in a specific part of the body. Hyperplasia can be a sign of abnormal or precancerous changes in tissue and is called pathologic hyperplasia. If it is “just” an overgrowth of non-cancerous cells though, it’s called physiological hyperplasia. Depending upon its location and impact, hyperplasia could lead to an epilepsy.

The opposite of Hyperplasia is Hypoplasia which refers to part(s) of a person’s body and/or brain that has the incomplete development or underdevelopment of an organ or tissue.

Hypospadias is when the opening of a baby boy's urethra (where their urine comes out) isn't at the tip of their penis but instead anywhere from just below their penis all the way over to their scrotum.

Hypothalamic hamartomas (HH) are rare, tumour-like malformations that occur during foetal development and are present at birth (congenital). They don't spread and are not cancerous. Common side effects are epilepsy, precocious (early) puberty, and other neurobehavioral symptoms.

The Hypothalamus is a little structure right down deep in your brain. It releases hormones, regulates your body temperature, controls your appetite, regulates your emotional responses to things, controls/releases your hormones, and more!

A hypothesis is a supposition or proposed explanation of something based upon the limited evidence available. It is considered to be a starting point for further research/investigation.

An illness that is latrogenic has been caused by a medical treatment/person.

“Ictal” is the time that someone is having a seizure.

ID stands for "intradermal" and is used in describing how to administer a medication – in this case: within or between the layers of the skin.

Idiopathic Generalised Epilepsies (IGEs) are a group of epileptic disorders that are believed to have a strong underlying genetic basis. Examples include childhood absence epilepsy, juvenile absence epilepsy, juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, and epilepsy with generalised tonic-clonic seizures alone. The term “idiopathic” comes from the Greek word “idios”, which simply means “oneself”.

IM stands for "intramuscular" and is used in describing how to administer a medication – in this case, through installing them into the depth of specifically selected muscles.

The immune system is a combination of organs, tissues, and cells which help animals to recognise and fight disease-causing germs (pathogens) like bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Some organs and tissues involved include the thymus and bone marrow, lymph nodes and vessels, spleen, and skin.

In medicine, if something is “Impaired” it is weakened or damaged. Examples include impaired cognitive function, mobility, digestion, and many, many other things. Having an impairment is not necessarily permanent.

IN stands for "intranasal" and is used in describing how to administer a medication – in this case, through an intranasal route (by way of the nasal structures)

“In utero” refers to the time when an embryo or foetus hasn’t been born yet.

Neurons contain neurotransmitters that have degrees of excitement ("yeah, let's fire!") vs inhibition ("no, let's not fire!"). The control of inhibition and excitement controls whether or not an Action Potential (an electrical impulse) will occur.

Innervate means to supply something with nerves!

An Inpatient is someone who lives in the hospital for some time in order to get the treatment and care that they need. Sometimes people say in the hospital for one night and sometimes for many nights.

If someone has an Intellectual Disability (ID) it means that they have a significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information and to learn and apply new skills. Their intelligence and ability to cope independently are limited and impaired. There are 4 levels: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. People with ID often have epilepsy which is often caused by the same brain damage/maldevelopment causing the ID.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a way of measuring a person's intelligence based on the results of some standardised tests. A person's IQ indicates how far above or below average their mental abilities stand in comparison to those of other people. Most people with epilepsy do not have a lower-than-average IQ but a substantial minority do.

“Interictal” is the time inbetween seizures.

Interictal means "inbetween seizures" and the “spikes” part refers to abnormal brain discharges. So, “Interictal Spikes” are in reference to abnormal brain activity inbetween seizures.

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) is a World Health Organization (WHO) classification of health and health-related domains and their framework for measuring health and disability at both individual and population levels.

The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) is "The world's preeminent association of health care professionals and scientists working toward a world where no person's life is limited by epilepsy".

Humans have two lots of intestines: the small and the large. Together, they are long, muscular tubes which run from the lower end of our stomach to the anus. They enable us to digest and absorb energy and nutrients from food.

Intracranial refers to something that takes place inside the cranium (the skull). An example would be an Intracranial Electroencephalography (iEEG)/Electrocorticography (ECoG) and Invasive EEG Monitoring where subdural grids or strips of electrodes are placed directly onto the brain tissue.

The term “Intractable” is used in the sphere of the epilepsies when someone’s epileptic seizures cannot be controlled with Anti-Seizure Medications. Other terms used are “refractory” and “drug-resistant”.

Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) refers to the poor/slower-than-normal growth of a foetus when it's in the womb during pregnancy.

Ion channels are like crucial paths going between the bits of your neuron that either allow or don’t allow ions (atoms/molecules containing positive or negative charges of electricity) to travel between them. Ion channels play major roles in our nervous system as a whole and can even be found in our ears!

Ions are atoms/molecules containing positive or negative charges of electricity and play a major role in our nervous system - specifically in the epilepsies.

IP stands for "Intraperitoneal" and is used in describing how to administer a medication – in this case, through a peritoneal route (a body cavity).

i.v. stands for "in vena" (which is Latin for "intravenous") and is used to say that a drug is to be administered to a patient intravenously – i.e. through a vein.

The rare Jeavons Syndrome (also known as Epilepsy with Eyelid Myoclonia) typically starts between 2-14 years (most between 6-8 years) of age and is more common in girls. The cause is unknown but there is likely a genetic factor. Seizures in this syndrome are frequent and occur multiple times a day.

Juvenile refers to people of young age.

Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (JME) Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (JME) is one of the most common genetic epilepsy syndromes, accounting for about 9% of all epilepsies and 27% of all genetic/Idiopathic Generalised Epilepsies (IGEs) and affecting otherwise healthy adolescents or adults. There are 3 different types of seizures that people with JME may experience: myoclonic, tonic-clonic and absence. The seizures start usually start happening between the ages of 10 and 24 years. Photosensitivity is common.

KCNMA1-Linked Channelopathy is a rare genetic disease in which most patients can have epileptic seizures, involuntary abnormal movements, or both. Other symptoms can also occur. It is caused by certain defects (mutations) in a gene called KCNMA1.

The Ketogenic diet is a full-on, tough, very low-carb (think even largely excluding fruit and vegetables), very high-fat diet. It causes a body to go into a state of ketosis; whereby fat is burnt for energy. It turns fat into ketones in the liver which can then supply energy for the brain. It can be recommended as a treatment by a neurologist for some people with refractory epilepsy.

The Ketogenic Diet originated as a treatment for epilepsy in the 1920s.

Kindling is a process whereby a seizure or other event is commenced.

A Learning Disability is very different from an Intellectual Disability: with a Learning Disability, someone’s brain has trouble processing certain types of information, such as remembering unrelated pieces of information or understanding the sounds in words. Dyslexia is an example of a common, well-known type of Learning Disability.

Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (LGS) is a rare genetic disease that can be caused by early brain injury from infection or trauma, genetics, brain malformations, or even some of the other epilepsy syndromes on this page! People affected can experience several different types of seizures but most commonly: atonic, tonic, and atypical absence.

"Lesion" is a generic term for a brain abnormality that shows up on neuroimaging. Examples can include sclerosis (hardening or scarring) of brain tissue and tumours (common causes of epilepsy).

Levetiracetam/Keppra is an Anti-Seizure Medication available on prescription in the form of tablets, liquid, or granules.

Keppra is a brand name of the drug produced by the pharma company UCB.

“Lifestyle factors” are the habits and ways of life that affect people’s health and which people can usually choose to change. Examples include physical activity, smoking, food and alcohol consumption, and for some, things like location, sleeping patterns, friends, and such.

A “Lobectomy” is the removal of an entire lobe of the brain. Temporal lobectomies are the most common type of surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy and frontal lobectomy is the second.

There are various types of Long non-coding RNA/lncRNA and they play key roles in gene regulation and function. They work with DNA, RNA, and proteins.

A Longitudinal study is a type of observational research of which there are a range of different types. Examples include cohort studies, panel studies, and record linkage studies. In Longitudinal studies, researchers don't interact with their subjects but instead conduct several observations of the same subjects over some time – which can last years.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a type of brain scan that looks at the structure of the brain. The MRI scanner is a short cylinder that's open at both ends and the person lies on a motorised bed that's moved inside the scanner.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is an imaging technique that identifies brain activity and measures small magnetic fields produced in the brain. The scan is used to produce a Magnetic Source Image (MSI) to pinpoint the source of seizures. It can detect local brain activity with more accuracy than an EEG.

Medicaid is a USA state and federal-state medical assistance program that provides health coverage for people of any age with a very low income. Although people usually don’t pay anything for medical expenses that are covered, a small co-payment is sometimes required.

Medicare is a USA federal insurance program. It serves people over 65 primarily (whatever their income), but also serves both younger people with a disability and people needing dialysis. Patients pay part of the costs through deductibles for hospital and other costs. Small monthly premiums are required for non-hospital coverage.

mRNAs carry the code from DNA to make proteins. There are approximately 23,000 mRNAs encoded in the human genome.

A Meta-analysis is a type of statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. Meta-analyses can be performed when multiple scientific studies are addressing the same question, with each study reporting measurements that are expected to have some degree of error.

Metabolites are substances created by a creature’s metabolism after breaking down food, drugs, chemicals, or even its own tissue (such as fat or muscle). Examples include ethanol, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, and glycerol. Most Anti-Seizure Medications undergo metabolic conversion to active or inactive metabolites in the liver.

MicroRNA/MiRNA are small (only about 22 nucleotides), single-stranded non-coding RNA molecules found in plants, animals, and some viruses, that function in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression.

Migrating Partial Epilepsy of Infancy (MMPSI) is a severe, rare form of epilepsy that begins very early in life. Recurrent seizures begin before the age of 6 months but commonly start within a few weeks of birth. The seizures do not respond well to treatment. Although affected babies/children may develop normally at first, their progression stalls, and their skills decline when their seizures begin, and as a result, they have profound developmental delay.

If someone is given a diagnosis by a clinician which later turns out to be inaccurate, it will be reclassified as a misdiagnosis.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Molecular genetics (MG) is a scientific discipline concerned with the structure and function of genes at the molecular level and includes the technique of genetic engineering.

A Molecule is a combination of 2 or more atoms bonded together. They form the most basic unit of a chemical compound.

Monogenic is a type of genetic disease that is caused by just one gene.

Mosaic mutations are somatic genetic mutations that happen in a single cell early in embryonic development. These genetic changes are not present in a parent's egg or sperm cells, or in the fertilised egg, but happen a bit later when the embryo includes several cells. As all the cells divide during growth and development, cells that arise from the cell with the altered gene will have the mutation, while other cells will not.

The term “Movement Disorders” refers to a group of neurological conditions that cause either increased movements or reduced or slow movements. These movements may be voluntary or involuntary. Types of movement disorders include Ataxia, Cervical Dystonia, Chorea, Dystonia, Functional Movement Disorder, Huntington’s Disease, Multiple System Atrophy, Parkinson's Disease, Parkinsonism, Progressive Supranuclear Palsy, Restless Legs Syndrome, Tardive Dyskinesia, Tourette Syndrome, Tremors, and Wilson's Disease. Movement disorders often accompany an epilepsy.

Multidisciplinary Teams (MDTs) are groups of doctors, nurses, and possibly other medical staff who meet up regularly to talk about patient diagnoses, treatments, and care. An example could be a neurologist, neuropsychiatrist, epilepsy nurse, neurosurgeon, and neurophysiologist.

Multiple Sclerosis (often referred to as MS) is a largely progressive neurological disease that has our immune system mistakenly attacking and causing damage to the nerves in our brain and spinal cord (our Central Nervous System). MS isn't directly inherited, but people who are related to someone with the condition are more likely to develop it. Common symptoms of MS include tiredness (fatigue), numbness and tingling, loss of balance and dizziness, stiffness or spasms, tremors, pain, bladder problems, bowel trouble, vision problems, and cognitive problems.

When a person has more than one symptom of a disease or injury.

In scientific research, if a scientist predicts an outcome of their experiment through "a hypothesis" and their prediction is "wrong", then they have had a "negative result". Negative results are as valuable as positive results as they help researchers modify their research plans.

A Neonate is a newborn child (or another mammal).

The Nervous System is a complex collection of nerves and specialised cells known as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical wiring! Structurally, the Nervous System has two components: the Central Nervous System (those in your brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (the rest of your body).

The Neural Tube is what forms an early brain and spine in an embryo. Defects in this are called Neural Tube Defects (NTDs).

A Neurodegenerative Disease is one in which the cells of our Central Nervous System (largely, the brain) stop working or die. Common Neurodegenerative Diseases include Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. People with Alzheimer’s Disease often also experience an epilepsy.

Neurogentics is the genetic research of genes relating to the Nervous System - which include genes causing/impacting the epilepsies!

Neurologists diagnose, treat, and manage multiple disorders that affect the Central Nervous System (the brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (nerves and muscles which activate movement and transmit sensation from all parts of the body to the brain). These disorders cover the epilepsies.

Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the Nervous System, including diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and diseases involving the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.

Neuromodulation is a technology that acts directly with our nerves. It changes the activity of our nerves by presenting electrical or pharmaceutical "agents" to a specific area. Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) can sometimes be a treatment for epilepsy and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) can sometimes be a treatment for Parkinson's disease.

Neurons are a type of brain cell, which when you have epilepsy can become over-excited, or almost a bit lazy (allowing other neurons to become too excited!). They are made up of pieces called the axon, synapses, nucleus, soma, dendrites, and more.

Neuropathology is the study of diseases of the Nervous System (brain, spinal cord, and nerves) through analysing tissues removed during autopsy or biopsy. Neuropathologists are scientists crucial in improving understanding of the epilepsies.

Neurophysiology is part of physiology and neuroscience that involves studying functions of the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems. Clinical Neurophysiologists don’t “just” place electrodes on your head for an EEG, but they analyse the readings and can work as part of a Multi-disciplinary Team (MDT) in patient care.

Neuropsychiatry is a mix of the complex neuropsychiatric conditions that occur in the context of neurological diseases. Clinical Neuropsychiatrists focus on helping patients who have psychiatric disorders (e.g. depression) as the result of/relating to a neurological disease (e.g. epilepsy).

Neuropsychology is the study of the physiological processes of the Nervous System and the link between them and people’s behaviour and cognition. A clinical Neuropsychologist is often involved in the care of people with an epilepsy as the disease can often affect people’s memory, mood, and more.

Neuroscience is the study of the Nervous System – from structure to function, development to degeneration, in health and in disease. It covers the whole Nervous System, with a primary focus on the brain.

Neurosurgery is surgery of the Nervous System. It is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of patients with injury to, or diseases/disorders of the brain (e.g. epilepsy), spinal cord and spinal column, and peripheral nerves within all parts of the body.

Neuropathology is the study of diseases of the Nervous System (brain, spinal cord, and nerves) through analysing tissues removed during autopsy or biopsy. Neuropathologists are scientists crucial in improving understanding of the epilepsies.

Neurotransmitters are the molecules that travel from one neuron’s (the presynaptic cell) dendrite across the synapse to the dendrite of another neuron (the postsynaptic cell), conveying information.

Nosology is a branch of medical science dealing with how diseases are classified.

Essential to all known forms of life, Nucleic Acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds made of nucleotides and are the molecules that carry information within our cells.

Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids, and they make up RNA and DNA.

o.d. stands for “"omni die" (which is Latin for “every day”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Levothyroxine, 100mcg, o.d.”

o.m. stands for "omni mane" (which is Latin for “every morning”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Sertraline, 50mg, o.m.”.

o.n. stands for "omni nocte" (which is Latin for “every night”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Lamotrogine, 100mg, o.n.”.

An Observational study is a type of clinical research where people are observed in normal settings. Researchers gather information and group volunteers according to broad characteristics and compare changes over time. For example, researchers may collect data through medical exams, tests, or questionnaires about a group of older adults over time to learn more about the effects of different lifestyles on their epilepsy. These studies may help identify new possibilities for clinical trials.

The Occipital lobe is part of your cerebrum, and you have one on each side (hemisphere) of your brain. Your Occipital lobe enables you to interpret vision (colour, light, movement).

Ohtahara Syndrome is a rare genetic condition characterised by hard-to-control seizures and developmental delays. It affects newborns, usually within the first three months of life (most often within the first 10 days) in the form of epileptic seizures. Infants have primarily tonic seizures but may also experience focal seizures, and rarely, myoclonic seizures. Ohtahara syndrome is classically caused by very abnormal brain structure that may be due to damage or abnormal development.

Examples of Orofacial Clefts include a cleft lip or cleft palate. These are congenital (born with) malformations and one of the most common facial defects. These happen when a baby's lip or mouth doesn't form properly during pregnancy.

An organism is something alive - from a human to an elephant, to a coconut tree, to a dog, to a virus, to a bacteria!

An outpatient is a person who comes into the hospital for an appointment but doesn't stay there overnight.

p.c. stands for “post cibum” (which is Latin for “after meals”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Ibuprofen, 400mg, p.c.”.

p.r.n. stands for "pro re nata" (which is Latin for "when required") and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “melatonin, 1mg, p.r.n.”.

Paediatric refers to the diagnosis, treatment, and care for children in healthcare - usually from birth up to the age of 17 years and 364 days.

A Pain disorder is one involving chronic pain experienced by a person in one or more areas. The pain is often so severe that it disables the person from normal functioning. The pain can last a few days up to many years.

When someone refers to "a Paper", they are usually referring to a detailed academic report or publication explaining research (e.g. scientific, computational, medical, or mathematical). Papers commence with an abstract of the piece (like a summary), have an introduction covering the purpose of the study, the processes followed, and then the overall results and conclusion. The work is then described in detail with references and often images. There shall then be conclusions, potential next steps, and references.

Part of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PSNS/PNS) challenges our Sympathetic Nervous System and helps us to chill out by slowing down our hearts and relaxing our muscles.

The Parietal lobe is a part of your cerebrum and you have one on each side (hemisphere) of your brain. It's towards the back, behind the frontal lobe. It enables you to interpret language, and words, gives you a sense of touch, pain, and temperature, interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory, and memory, and gives you a spatial and visual perception.

Parkinson's Disease is a progressive, neurological disease with typical symptoms including involuntary shaking of particular parts of the body (tremors), slow movements, and stiff and inflexible muscles. Common physical and psychological symptoms include depression and anxiety, balance problems, loss of sense of smell (anosmia), problems sleeping (insomnia), and cognitive memory problems. Parkinson's is caused by a loss of nerve cells in a part of the brain called the substantia nigra; leading to a reduction in the brain of a chemical called dopamine (which plays a key role in regulating the movement of the body).

A Patent is a legal, official declaration by a government that a person owns a very specific invention, which could be a product or process. It could be described as a type of intellectual property. If something is patented, it is illegal for anyone but the owner to make, use, or sell the invention for a specific period of time. Patents are commonly applied for and used in medicine, science, healthcare, and more.

Pathology is the study of diseases and is essential for us to better understand them, their causes, and ways in which we can prevent/treat them. Neuropathology is a specialisation of pathology and is the study of disease of nervous system tissue - including brain tissue.

Perinatal refers to the period of time immediately before and after the birth of a baby. Defined in diverse ways it may start at the 20th to 28th week of gestation and ends 1 to 4 weeks after birth.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is made up of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord (hence is separate to (although linked to) the Central Nervous System (CNS)). It's split up into two parts called the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).

A Ph.D. is a “Doctor of Philosophy”; a globally recognised postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and higher education institutions to a candidate who has submitted a thesis or dissertation based on extensive and original research in their chosen field. It usually follows a master's degree, although some institutions also allow students to progress straight to a Ph.D. from their bachelor's degree.

The term "phenotype" is a referral to an observable trait caused by or influenced by genetics and environment. For example, if a person has a genetic mutation leading to a specific epilepsy, then the mutation shall be called a phenotype.

p.o. stands for "per os" (which is Latin for "by mouth") and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Quetiapine, 100mg, p.o.”.

Polypharmacy refers to the regular use of multiple medications (in the US - at least 5). It is common in older adults and younger “at-risk” populations and increases the risk of adverse medical outcomes. Several risk factors can lead to Polypharmacy.

Also called Sleep Studies, Polysomnography research is used to try and diagnose sleep disorders. Different sensors are taped to the body to record brain waves, eye movements, muscle tones, body movements, breathing patterns, and heart rhythms.

In scientific research, if a scientist predicts an outcome of their experiment through "a hypothesis" and their prediction is "correct", then they have had a "positive result". However, Negative results are as valuable as positive results as they help researchers modify their future research. There is a bias towards favouring and promoting positive results when it comes to publications and research funding, and this must be challenged.

Post-ictal is the time after which someone has had a seizure.

Post-natal is the time after which a baby has been born.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition caused by one or more traumatic events/experiences. PTSD can affect children as well as adults. Common symptoms include hyperarousal, avoidance, emotional numbing, flashbacks, and more.

p.r. stands for "per rectum" (which is Latin for "rectally") and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Bisacodyl, 5mg, p.r.”.

Precision medicine is when very specific medicine(s)/treatment(s) are provided to a person based upon their very specific makeup - often their genetic makeup. Precision medicine looks at the genetics, environment, and lifestyle of a person to select treatment that could work best for them. The Precision medicine model can be far more effective than the more common “one-drug-fits-all” model.

Pre-clinical work is work performed before any patients are involved. For example, an Anti-Seizure Medication must go through extensive trials in labs before being tested on animals and then humans in clinical trials.

Pre-ictal refers to the time before a seizure.

Pre-natal refers to the time before a baby is born. Another term used is “antenatal”.

Also known as Presurgical evaluations, the term “Preoperative evaluation” refers to extensive tests before a surgery that are evaluated by a Multi-Disciplinary Team. In the cases of epilepsy surgery, tests generally include Video Telemetry, often Intracranial Electroencephalograms, other forms of Neuroimaging (MRI, PET, SPECT, MEG), ECG, Neuropsychological testing, and Psychiatric evaluations.

Primary care services provide the first point of contact for patients in the healthcare system, acting as the ‘front door’ of the health service. Primary care is not related to a hospital visit but instead includes health promotion, disease prevention, early intervention, treatment of acute conditions, and management of chronic conditions. Examples include a General Practice (when you see a General Practitioner or general Nurse), a Community pharmacy (where you see a pharmacist), a dental practice (when you see a dental nurse and dentist), and an Optician (when you see an optician).

Priority Setting Partnerships (PSPs) enable clinicians, patients, and carers to work together to identify and prioritise evidence uncertainties in particular areas of health and care that could be answered by research.

Psychiatry is a medical field concerned with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental health conditions. Psychiatrists are trained medical doctors and can prescribe medications. They spend much of their time with patients on medication management as a course of treatment.

Psychology is the study of the human mind, emotions, and behaviour. Psychologists use different types of therapy to treat people’s emotional and mental suffering.

Puberty is the time during which a child's body begins to change into that of an adult. Involving hormones, signs are commonly physical and emotional.

Patient and Public Involvement (PPI) is when patients and members of the public work in partnership with research teams to plan, manage, design, and carry out research. PPI is important from both perspectives of effectiveness as well as morality.

Pyridoxine-Dependent epilepsy (PDE) is a rare cause of stubborn, refractory seizures appearing in newborns, infants, and occasionally older children - of which more than 200 cases have now been reported in medical literature. Patients with the classic neonatal PDE experience seizures soon after birth. In retrospect, many mothers describe rhythmic movements in the uterus (womb) that may start in the late second trimester and which likely represent Foetal Seizures (seizures before birth).

q.d. stands for "quaque die" (which is Latin for "every day") and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Vitamin D, 20 mcg, q.d.”.

q.d.s. stands for “quater die sumendum” (which is Latin for “to be taken four times daily”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Flucloxacillin, 250mg, q.i.d.”.

q.i.d. stands for “quarter in die” (which is Latin for “4 times a day”) and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Flucloxacillin, 250mg, q.i.d.”.

Qualitative analysis refers to an analysis of information that is descriptive rather than numerical.

A person’s Quality of life is defined by the World Health Organization as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns".

Quantitative analysis is an analysis of information that can be counted or measured clearly and given a number.

Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs) are studies that measure how effective a new intervention or treatment might be. Although no trial on its own is likely to prove that an intervention is or isn't effective, it can often identify a casual relation or potential correlation between the intervention and results. Randomisation is important because it reduces human biases and allows us to check out cause and effect when it comes to treatments and outcomes.

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) is one of the 5 key stages of sleep, during which a person’s eyes rapidly move around, they dream, and it's thought to be responsible for consolidating memories.

When the underlying cause of epilepsy impacts fewer than 200,000 people in the world, it is a rare epilepsy.

Epilepsies that cannot be controlled by Anti-Seizure Medications are referred to as “refractory”. Approximately 70% of people with epilepsy can have their seizures controlled with ASMs and approximately 30% shall have Refractory epilepsy.

Rehabilitation is the care that we get that can help us retrieve, keep, or improve the abilities that we need for daily life. It helps us achieve the highest level of function, independence, and quality of life possible. Anyone could need rehabilitation at any stage in their lives. Reasons can include injury, surgery, disease, or illness, or because their functioning has declined with age.

A Rescue Medication is one given to or taken by a person to relieve their symptoms straight away or as soon as possible. When it comes to epilepsy, people often can be given a Rescue medication if they experience status epilepticus.

A Resection is the process of surgically removing part of, or all; of a particular organ. In epilepsy, people often have brain lobe resections as a type of treatment for refractory epilepsy. Resections are also often referred to as lobectomies.

A Retrospective study is a type of research where a person uses information that has been collected in the past.

Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that appears in infancy with regression of acquired motor skills, loss of purposeful activity, hand stereotypies, loss of acquired spoken language, and seizures. Nearly 70-90 percent of Rett Syndrome patients experience seizures.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a molecule similar to DNA in that each polymer is made up of long chains of nucleotides. However, RNAs have 1 strand while DNA has two. RNA carries genetic information that is translated by ribosomes into proteins that code, decode, regulate, and express genes in your body. Genetic information is passed from DNA to RNA to protein through the processes of transcription and translation.

Ribosomal RNA / rRNA are molecules forming ribosomes - which are essential in protein synthesis.

Ring 20/Ring Chromosome 20 Syndrome/r(20) Syndrome is a rare genetic condition that affects the normal development and function of the brain. The most common features of this condition are recurrent focal seizures (epilepsy) in childhood, then some degree of Intellectual Disability, and then behavioural difficulties. Additional features of Ring20 can include slow growth and short stature, a small head (microcephaly), and subtle differences in facial features. People with Ring20 usually have more than one type of seizure.

Risk communication is the real-time exchange of information, advice, and opinions between experts or officials and people who face a threat.

In medicine, a Risk factor is something that can help assess if a person is likely to develop a symptom, condition, disease, or infection. For many people with epilepsy, a risk factor for seizures can be lack of sleep, forgetting medication, or excess stress.

Salient means to "stand out". For example, a salient feature of epilepsy would be recurrent seizures of the brain.

People get referred to a Secondary Care provider by their primary care provider (often a General Practitioner/Primary Care Physician). The referral happens when the primary care provider doesn't have the knowledge required and the person needs specific expert care; most often provided in hospitals. A neurologist and Epilepsy Specialist Nurse are secondary care.

Seizure burden is a measurement of the negative impact that seizures have on the life of a person.

The Seizure Onset Zone is the part of the brain in which a person’s seizures commence. It is different from the epileptogenic zone which is a radiographic lesion and is the cause of the seizures.

Seizure prediction refers to the prediction/forecasting of seizures. There are different ways to predict seizures (with varying degrees of accuracy) being developed. Lots of people think that a “Focal Aware Seizure” (previously known as an “aura”) is just a warning of another seizure, but indeed it is also a seizure itself.

A “Self-limited epilepsy” is one that a child will grow out of.

Medical Semiology (also called semiotics) is made up of the study of the signs of diseases. These can be identified by checking out a person’s symptoms, their medical history, by conducting physical examinations, and identifying signs of disease in the laboratory.

Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs) are the main metabolites produced by microbiota in the large intestine through the anaerobic fermentation of indigestible polysaccharides such as dietary fibre and resistant starch. The three most common SCFAs are acetate, propionate, and butyrate.

Sleep Apnea is a condition where your breathing stops and starts while you sleep. It is a potentially serious disorder and is caused by your airways becoming relaxed and narrow during sleep. It's linked to obesity and age but can occur in otherwise healthy people too.

Sleep Architecture represents the cyclical pattern of sleep as it shifts between the different sleep stages. These include Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) and Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep.

Sleep Disorders are conditions that impair your sleep or prevent you from getting restful sleep. They can result in daytime sleepiness and other symptoms. Common sleep disorders include Insomnia, Restless Legs Syndrome, Narcolepsy, and Sleep Apnea.

Sleep Efficiency is the proportion of time spent asleep versus the amount of time spent in bed.

Also called a Polysomnography, a Sleep Study is research used to try and diagnose sleep disorders. Different sensors are taped to the body to record brain waves, eye movements, muscle tones, body movements, breathing patterns, and heart rhythms.

Sleepwalking (also known as Somnambulism) is when someone walks or carries out complex activities while not fully awake. It’s more common in children than in adults and usually happens during a period of deep sleep which peaks during the early part of the night.

A person's Social function is assessed based on their interactions with their environment and their ability to fulfill their role within such environments, such as work, social activities, and relationships with partners and family.

Social support is the perception and actuality in which someone is cared for, has assistance available from other people, and most popularly: is part of a supportive social network. These supportive resources can be emotional, informational, or companionship; tangible or intangible.

There are two major types of Sodium channels - the Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (VGSC) and the Epithelial Sodium Channel (ESC). VGSCs are the basic Ion channels for neuronal excitability (overactivity in your brain) and are the ones referred to when it comes to epilepsy.

Lots of Anti-Seizure Medications work by blocking Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels and are referred to as Sodium-channel blockers. They play a big role in reducing the excitability of neurons.

Somatic mutations are gene mutations that occur at some time during a person's life and are present only in certain cells (not in every cell in the body). These mutations can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun or can occur if an error is made as DNA copies itself during cell division.

Part of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) transmits signals from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to our muscles, and enables us to control our voluntary movements and mediate our sight, hearing, and touch!

Stat stands for "statim" (which is Latin for "immediately").

A Statistical model is an academic, mathematical model using numbers from a study. The model identifies trends, and patterns, and often enables predictions.

Status Epilepticus (SE) is a seizure that lasts more than 5 minutes or is when a person has more than one seizure within a 5-minute period without returning to a normal level of consciousness inbetween seizures. SE is very dangerous and considered a medical emergency.

Stem cells are amazing because they often can morph into different types of cells depending upon what the body needs. They are very useful in epilepsy research. There are two main types: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.

A Stereoelectroencephalography (sEEG)/Stereo-EEG procedure is a type of Intracranial Electroencephalography (iEEG) (also known as an Electrocorticography (ECoG) or Invasive EEG Monitoring) that is thought of as less invasive than surgery using Subdural Grid or Strip Electrodes. This is because although the electrodes go deep inside a person's brain, only small incisions need to be made into a person's scalp and skull and they don't need a craniotomy! sEEG electrodes are made of long, thin, flexible plastic with electrodes inside them. These electrodes are placed stereotactically, meaning that their location is guided by three-dimensional imaging of the brain. Because the procedure is minimally invasive, electrodes can be implanted into both hemispheres of the brain so that more information can be gathered to identify where someone's seizures start.

Heaps of people have sEEGs and they can prove to be a valuable tool in helping to improve a person's quality of life."

Subdural Grid and Strip Electrodes are used in Intracranial Electroencephalographies (iEEG) (also known as Electrocorticographies (ECoGs) and Invasive EEG Monitoring) and are used when large parts of the brain need to be monitored.

The electrode grids and strips are made up of small disc electrodes that are covered in soft rubber. Where the grids and strips are placed on the brain varies from person to person, but people can have from 8 to 64 electrodes used! Because of the large recording areas, people need a craniotomy to have Subdural Grid Electrodes used. Subdural Grid Electrodes (which are often used along with Strip Electrodes) are arranged in lines on the brain and can be placed via a hole in the skull or during the same craniotomy as the Subdural Grid Electrodes.

Heaps of people have sEEGs and they can prove to be a valuable tool in helping to improve a person's quality of life.

A Stroke is a serious, life-threatening medical emergency that happens when the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off. Strokes are a medical emergency and urgent treatment is essential. Seizures are common in those who have strokes and often lead to epilepsy.

Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP) is stated as the cause of death when a person with epilepsy dies without warning and when there’s no clear reason why they have died.

Sympathetic arousal (from the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)) is when a person is under stress and experiencing that "fight or flight" feeling.

Part of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) activates our "fight or flight" responses and is kind of then challenged by the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)!

Symptomatic refers to a condition or disease that shows symptoms. E.g. a cough can be symptomatic of an upper respiratory infection.

The Symptomatogenic Zone is the part of a person’s brain that experiences symptoms from a seizure – aka. Ictal Symptoms.

Symptoms are any physical, psychological, or neurological change in a person that is caused by a disease. Symptoms are subjective and can be very different for different people.

At the ILAE (International League Against Epilepsy), a Taskforce is a group of epilepsy professionals working together (usually internationally) on a certain epilepsy challenge.

t.d.s. stands for "ter die sumendum" (which is Latin for "to be taken three times daily") and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Pregabalin, 75mg, t.d.s.”.

Telehealth refers to the technologies and services used in Telemedicine.

Telemedicine is when a doctor, nurse, etc., uses technology to provide care from a distance. To do this, telecommunications (e.g. telephone, internet) are used.

The Temporal lobe is part of your cerebrum, and you have one on each side (hemisphere) of your brain. Your Temporal lobe enables you to understand language, retain memories, process sounds, and organise things. Temporal Lobe Epilepsy is the most common type of focal epilepsy.

A Teratogen is anything that can cause an abnormality in a foetus due to exposure during pregnancy. Examples include Sodium Valproate and Thalidomide.

Tertiary care is a higher level of specialised care within a hospital. An example of a clinician in Tertiary care would be an epileptologist or neurosurgeon. People typically get referred to Tertiary care by someone in Secondary care (e.g. a neurologist).

t.i.d. stands for "ter in die =" (which is Latin for "= three times a day") and is used in prescribing medications. E.g. “Carbamazepine, 200mg, t.d.s.”.

Tolerance (for medication) is a condition that occurs when a person's body gets used to a drug and it can become less effective. Tolerance can build to such a level that an increase in dosage, or a different drug may be considered.

Transfer RNA/tRNA is a small molecule that plays a part in protein synthesis; transcribing RNA and translating it into protein.

An Array is a collection of similar types of data and a Transistor Array is a collection of 2 or more Transistors on the same electrical wafer/semiconductor.

A Transistor is a semiconductor device used to regulate/manage/control electrical voltages.

Transition medicine is the journey from paediatric to adult health care, which usually occurs when patients are 18-21 years old. This can be a challenging time for patients, parents/carers, and clinicians, so effective care and communication is key.

Translational Medicine is a type of work in the field of biomedicine where the professional works both directly with patients/families and in medical/scientific research - enabling their research to be focussed on helping their patients.

A trauma is an experience that is deeply distressing/disturbing to a person. What might be a trauma to one person may not be to another.

Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs) are injuries to the brain that are caused by a physical head injury. There are lots of different causes including road traffic accidents, assaults, falls, accidents, and more. TBIs often cause seizures and epilepsy.

Triage is the process where patients are prioritised based on the severity of their illness or injury, their prognosis, and the availability of resources (often staff and tools). When it comes to the epilepsies there are rarely enough clinical specialists and there will be a waiting list to see an epileptologist, epilepsy nurse, and epilepsy neurosurgeon.

A pregnancy is divided up into 3 parts called Trimesters.

Trio tests involve the genetic testing of each biological parent and the child. tTrio testing is done to identify any inherited genetic variants that may be causing a disease(s). There can be WES (Whole Exome Sequencing) and WGS (Whole Genome Sequencing).

Tuberous Sclerosis/Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) is a rare, multi-system genetic disease that causes non-cancerous (benign) tumours to grow in the body. They commonly grow in the brain and on/in other vital organs such as the kidneys, heart, eyes, lungs, and skin. TSC usually affects the central nervous system and can result in a combination of symptoms including seizures, impaired Intellectual Development, Autism Spectrum Disorder, behavioural problems, skin abnormalities, and kidney disease. The severity of symptoms varies widely. Epilepsy is very common in TSC and occurs in 80 to 90% of affected individuals during their lifetime.

Vaccines are safe biological substances developed to protect people from infections caused by bacteria and viruses. Each year, millions of injuries, disabilities, and deaths are prevented by vaccines.

Our Vagus Nerves branch off from each side (hemisphere) of our brains, all the way down our necks, and then along our esophagi to our intestinal tracts. They are the longest nerves in the body and affect how we swallow and talk. Vagus Nerves link up our Central Nervous System (CNS) and Enteric Nervous System (ENS). Electrical stimulation of our Vagus Nerves can sometimes help people control their seizures. This is called Vagus Nerve Stimulation.

Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) is an electrical stimulation of the Vagus Nerve which happens through a small device similar to a pacemaker. A small device is surgically implanted under the skin of the chest and a wire connects it through a second small incision to the Vagus Nerve in the neck. The stimulator is controlled through a hand-held stimulator magnet. VNS can be a treatment for some epilepsies and some cases of treatment-resistant depression.

A Vector is like a tiny, tiny vehicle delivering new genetic material (DNA) right into a very specific cell of the body (which is called Gene Therapy). There are different types of vectors: viral, non-viral, and engineered.

Video Telemetry is an EEG that is carried out (normally in a hospital) whilst the patient is being filmed. It is often a process gone through to identify where in a person’s brain their seizures may start and spread to and can be used to figure out more effective treatments, including epilepsy surgery.

Viruses are a collection of molecules that can only thrive and reproduce in a host (such as in the human body!). Viruses are WAY smaller than any bacteria! Biologists estimate that 380 trillion viruses are living on and inside each of our bodies right now and many either help to protect us or help our bodies thrive! Viruses (a type of germ) like to move around and because of this, they can be used to transport new DNA to a cell in gene therapy! Some viruses are to be avoided though, e.g.: COVID-19, influenza (the flu), HIV, viral meningitis, herpes, HPV, rubella, and chicken pox.

Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels (VGSCs/NaVs) are a type of Ion channel and occur in neurons - from the Axon Hillock down to the length of the Axon. It's responsible for creating an Action Potential and only lets the Action Potential go one way! The function of the VGSC often plays a key part in neuronal excitability, seizures, and epilepsy. Lots of Anti-Seizure Medications work by blocking Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels and are referred to as Sodium-channel blockers.

West Syndrome/Infantile Spasms is a rare genetic epilepsy characterised by the onset of epileptic spasms between 3 and 12 months of age - although later onset may occur. Infants may or may not have any identifiable underlying cause(s), but one example includes a structural brain abnormality. Each involuntary spasm typically begins suddenly and lasts for only a few seconds and occurs usually in clusters that can last over 10-20 minutes. It can be considered an Epileptic Encephalopathy.

Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) is when a small, specific bit of a person's DNA called the Exome (making up only 2% of our DNA) is looked at and analysed to identify any genetic abnormalities that may contribute to specific diseases. The Exome is the most studied part of the genome so far.

Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) is when 100% of a person's DNA is looked at and analysed to identify any genetic abnormalities that may contribute to diseases. It can be used in humans, animals, and even plants!